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Further Reading: Human Milk Fortifier for Your Baby in the NICU

Human Milk for VLBW Infants

  1. Parker MG, Stellwagen L, Miller ER, et al. Promoting Human Milk and Breastfeeding for the Very Low Birth Weight Infant: Clinical Report. Pediatrics. 2026;157(2):e2025073625. doi:10.1542/peds.2025-073625

  2. Taylor SN. Evidence-based nutrition for the very preterm infant in 2024. J Pediatr (Rio J). 2024;100(6):559-561. doi:10.1016/j.jped.2024.08.002

  3. Miller J, Tonkin E, Damarell RA, et al. A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Human Milk Feeding and Morbidity in Very Low Birth Weight Infants. Nutrients. 2018;10(6):E707. doi:10.3390/nu10060707

  4. Underwood MA. Human milk for the premature infant. Pediatr Clin North Am. 2013;60(1):189-207. doi:10.1016/j.pcl.2012.09.008

Neurodevelopment

  1. Consales A, Porro M, Gangi S, et al. In-hospital growth and long-term neurodevelopmental outcomes of very low birth weight infants. Front Pediatr. 2023;11:1180068. doi:10.3389/fped.2023.1180068

  2. Miller J, Tonkin E, Damarell RA, et al. A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Human Milk Feeding and Morbidity in Very Low Birth Weight Infants. Nutrients. 2018;10(6):E707. doi:10.3390/nu10060707 

Growth

  1. Bala FE, McGrattan KE, Valentine CJ, Jadcherla SR. A Narrative Review of Strategies to Optimize Nutrition, Feeding, and Growth among Preterm-Born Infants: Implications for Practice. Adv Nutr. 2024;15(11):100305. doi:10.1016/j.advnut.2024.100305

  2. Lavassani E, Tauber KA, Cerone JB, Ludke J, Munshi UK. Human milk-derived versus bovine milk-derived fortifier use in very low birth weight infants: growth and vitamin D status. Front Pediatr. 2024;12:1354683. doi:10.3389/fped.2024.1354683

Bone Minerals and Growth

  1. Mihatsch W, Thome U, Saenz de Pipaon M. Update on Calcium and Phosphorus Requirements of Preterm Infants and Recommendations for Enteral Mineral Intake. Nutrients. 2021;13(5):1470. doi:10.3390/nu13051470

Pasteurized Donor Human Milk

  1. AAP COMMITTEE ON NUTRITION, SECTION ON BREASTFEEDING, COMMITTEE ON FETUS AND NEWBORN. Donor Human Milk for the High-Risk Infant: Preparation, Safety, and Usage Options in the United States. Pediatrics. 2017;139(1):e20163440. doi:10.1542/peds.2016-3440 

  2. Yang R, Chen D, Deng Q, Xu X. The effect of donor human milk on the length of hospital stay in very low birthweight infants: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Int Breastfeed J. 2020;15(1):89. doi:10.1186/s13006-020-00332-6

Human Milk and Necrotizing Enterocolitis

  1. Underwood MA. The fifty billion dollar question: does formula cause necrotizing enterocolitis? J Perinatol. 2025;45(5):565-571. doi:10.1038/s41372-025-02277-2
  2. Quigley M, Embleton ND, Meader N, McGuire W. Donor human milk for preventing necrotising enterocolitis in very preterm or very low-birthweight infants. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2024;9(9):CD002971. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD002971.pub6
  3. Sami AS, Frazer LC, Miller CM, et al. The role of human milk nutrients in preventing necrotizing enterocolitis. Front Pediatr. 2023;11:1188050. doi:10.3389/fped.2023.1188050
  4. Miller J, Tonkin E, Damarell RA, et al. A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Human Milk Feeding and Morbidity in Very Low Birth Weight Infants. Nutrients. 2018;10(6):E707. doi:10.3390/nu10060707

Read more about Human Milk and NEC. 

Human Milk Fortifier

  1. Yadav R, Nandula S, Zapata H, et al. Comparing necrotizing enterocolitis risk among extremely preterm infants by use of human-milk or bovine-milk-based fortifier. J Perinatol. Published online July 6, 2026. doi:10.1038/s41372-026-02786-8
  2. Huizing MJ, Vizzari G, Bartoš F, Cavallaro G, Gianni ML, Villamor E. Absence of Evidence of Beneficial Effects of Human Milk-Based Fortifier: A Bayesian Model-Averaged Meta-Analysis. Acta Paediatr. 2025;114(12):3309-3316. doi:10.1111/apa.70260
  3. Galis R, Trif P, Mudura D, et al. Association of Fortification with Human Milk versus Bovine Milk-Based Fortifiers on Short-Term Outcomes in Preterm Infants-A Meta-Analysis. Nutrients. 2024;16(6):910. doi:10.3390/nu16060910
  4. Brown JVE, Lin L, Embleton ND, Harding JE, McGuire W. Multi-nutrient fortification of human milk for preterm infants. Cochrane Neonatal Group, ed. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2020;2020(7). doi:10.1002/14651858.CD000343.pub4